Hello there geographers and welcome to the ultimate AP human geography review. In this video, we will cover the seven units of AP human geography, focusing on the most important concepts for the AP exam or your class final. Now, keep in mind that this review isn't designed to teach you the material for the very first time. Instead, it's intended as kind of a lastminute refresher to help you tie everything together before the AP exam or your final exam. This video moves pretty quick, so I've created a review guide to help you stay organized. As you watch, use this guide to check off concepts that you understand and to highlight those that require more attention and review. By doing so, you'll gain a clear study plan that pinpoints exactly where to focus your effort, saving you time and boosting your exam score. All right. Now, of course, we need to start our review off by talking about maps, specifically map projections. Remember whenever we take the round earth and flatten it onto a two-dimensional surface something has got to give. But the question is what actually gets distorted? Is it the shape, the area, the distance or the direction? For instance, the Merkar projection is a conformal map, meaning it preserves shape and direction. That's what made it so useful for naval navigation, but it severely distorts the area. Land masses near the poles get stretched way out of proportion. So on a Mercer map, Greenland looks like it's roughly the same size as Africa when in reality Africa is about 14 times larger. South America looks smaller than Europe when it's actually almost twice the size. This distortion is one of the reasons the African Union in 2025 called for schools and institutions to adopt a map that more accurately reflects the continent's relative size. Now speaking of maps, you also need to be familiar with reference maps and thematic maps. Reference maps are yourformational maps. They show general geographic features, boundaries, place names, also known as toponyms, and physical features. For example, a topographic map, which uses contour lines to display the terrain and elevation changes in an area. Theatic maps, on the other hand, display spatial patterns and use data to tell a story about a specific topic. Every year, students miss easy points on the AP exam because they do not read the stimulus material, like thematic maps. On the exam, you need to understand what these maps show and use them to find the correct answer. So, do not just memorize the names of the different maps. Practice breaking them down. If you need practice, my exam slayer has fulllength tests for each unit in the class with each test having about 30 to 40% of the questions made up of stimulus-based questions just like the real AP exam. Plus, it comes with a full breakdown of your results, showing you not only what questions you missed, but what topics you missed, how much time you spent on each question, and full explanations for each question, making sure that you can understand exactly what went wrong and how to fix it. You can check it out today for free by signing up for the free trial. Now, those thematic maps don't just appear out of nowhere. They're actually built from data. And throughout this course, data takes two main forms. We have qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data is descriptive. It's often in word form and it's open to interpretation. Think of interviews, field observations, or written accounts of places. This data is subjective, meaning it can vary depending on who's collecting it and how they're collecting it. Quantitative data, on the other hand, is numerical. It's concrete, measurable, and objective. There's no debate here. Think census data, population counts, age distributions, income levels, or housing statistics, just to name a few. Now, the data that we use in this class often comes from different geospatial technologies. And there's a couple big ones that you need to be familiar with. The first is geographic information system, also known as GIS, which layers different types of data onto maps for analysis. Then there's remote sensing, which collects data about the Earth's surface from satellites or aircraft without physically making contact. Up next, we have GPS, or the global positioning system, which uses satellites to determine exact locations on Earth, and online mapping and web-based tools that make geographic data accessible to everyone. Data can also come from more traditional sources such as written accounts, government reports, fieldwork, interviews, and landscape analysis. Speaking of which, spend some extra time reviewing landscape analysis and photographic interpretation. These show up on the AP exam constantly, and students tend to struggle with them. So, make sure you practice. Remember, when you see a photo of a landscape on the test, you're being asked to read it like a geographer. Identify land use patterns, human modifications, cultural features, and environmental characteristics that stick out. Now, everyone uses geographic data differently. Governments use it to plan infrastructure. Businesses use it to choose store locations. Organizations use it to track environmental changes. The big thing here is that the same data can serve completely different purposes depending on who's using it, what decisions they're trying to make, and what scale the data is being viewed at. Speaking of scale, remember to review map scale, which is the distance on a map in relation to the corresponding distance on the Earth's surface. The big thing here to remember is that as the scale changes, the data changes as well. Zooming in gives us more detail, while zooming out highlights bigger patterns, but starts to use more generalizations. Small scale maps such as this one use more generalizations to present the data since the maps are zoomed out. But large-scale maps such as this one have more details and less generalizations since the maps are zoomed in. Then there's scales of analysis which is about how data is organized and presented. You can analyze the same topic at a local, national, regional or global scale. And the patterns you see will change depending on which scale you're using. For example, a country's overall GDP might look strong at the national scale, but zoom in at the local scale and you might find specific cities or rural areas dealing with serious poverty. Another concept that you need to be familiar with is human environment interaction. The two big theories that you need to know are environmental determinism and possibilism. Environmental determinism argues that the physical environment dictates the success or failure of a society. Certain environments like fertile river valleys allow for societies to thrive while harsh environments like deserts prevent societies from growing and developing. Possibilism on the other hand believes that the environment puts limits on a society but that people have the ability to adjust the physical environment and create their own success. People build irrigation systems in dry climates. They construct heated shelters in freezing environments. And we can see the environment does influence society but it doesn't control it. All right. Now the last major concept from unit one is regions. And remember a region is a geographic area defined by one or more shared characteristics or patterns. Be familiar with formal regions which are also known as uniform regions. These are geographic areas that have common attributes which are traditionally defined by economic, political, social or environmental characteristics. There are functional regions, also known as nodal regions, which are geographic areas organized around a node or center point, generally based around a specific economic activity, travel or communication. And lastly, there are perceptual regions, also known as vernacular regions, which are geographic areas that are linked together due to people's opinions, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs on the region. Now, if any of these concepts feel shaky, my ultimate review packet and exam slayer cover all of unit one in detail. The review packet helps you learn and review the material, while the exam slayer focuses on test prep and practice. All right, so unit two is all about population and migration. Starting with population distribution, which remember is different from population density. Population distribution is the spread of people across an area. When we describe distribution, we're looking at patterns. Are people clustered together, concentrated in one area with little space between them, or are they dispersed, spread out over a wider geographic area? Population density, on the other hand, is about how many people are in that area. For AP human geography, you need to be familiar with three different densities. The first is arithmetic density, which is the total number of people divided by the total land area. This tells you how crowded a place is overall. A higher number means more people per unit of land. Next is physiological density and this is the total population divided by the total amount of arable land which is land that can be used for farming. This density measures the pressure a population puts on its arable land. A higher physiological density means more people are depending on less farmland which can signal potential food security challenges. Then there's agricultural density, which is the number of farmers divided by the total amount of arable land. This one tells you about farming efficiency. A high agricultural density means more manual labor is needed to work the land, which is common in less economically developed countries, while a low agricultural density suggests more mechanized farming and less labor is required. For the AP exam, you don't need to worry about calculating these. There's no math section on the exam, but you absolutely need to understand what each density tells us about society and be able to compare them across different countries. Now, while you are reviewing population distribution and density, make sure you also study the consequences of these concepts as well. Remember, areas with higher density often have better access to services like healthcare, education, and jobs. But they also face challenges like overcrowding, pollution, and inequality. On the other hand, sparsely populated areas may struggle with limited infrastructure and access to services. All right, up next is population pyramids, which is something you definitely need to be familiar with for the AP exam. Population pyramids show the age and sex structure of a population, and they can reveal insights about a society's past, present, and future. When reading a population pyramid, pay attention to three age groupings. Pre-productive years, ages 0 to 14, reproductive years, ages 15 to 44, and post-reroductive years, 45 and above. Also, remember that a pyramid with a wide base, lots of people in the pre-reroductive and reproductive years, tells you that a country likely has high birth rates, and is probably in stage two of the demographic transition model. While a pyramid that's more rectangular or even topheavy with more people in their post reproductive years suggests that a country is in stage four or five with low birth rates and a stable or declining population. Make sure you also practice pulling specific data from the pyramids. You need to be comfortable with identifying the sex ratio, the child dependency ratio, and the elderly dependence ratio. Each of which gives you deeper insight into the pressures that a society is facing. like how many working age people are supporting the young and elderly population. Now speaking of population changes, make sure that you are familiar with these terms here. You will see these terms come up throughout the entire course and you definitely need to be familiar with them for the AP exam. All of these terms actually connect directly to the demographic transition model. So let's actually go into that. Now in stage one, both birth rates and death rates are high. So the population grows very slowly. Think pre-industrial societies where famine and diseases kept death rates higher, but families also had many children. In stage two, death rates start to decline thanks to improvements in food supply, sanitation, and medicine. Again, thank rates stay high, which means rapid population growth. This is where you see population explode. Now, in stage three, birth rates start to fall. Societies are urbanizing. Women are gaining more access to education and the workforce and families start choosing to have fewer children. The population here is still growing, but the rate of growth is now slowing down. Then in stage 4, both birth rates and death rates are now low. The population stabilize. This is where a country will hit zero population growth or ZPG where the population is essentially just replacing itself. And finally, there is stage five where birth rates will drop below the replacement level. Here the TFR falls below 2.1 the replacement rate and the population begins to decline. Countries like Japan and many in Europe are experiencing this right now. Remember when reviewing this model to focus not just on the stages but on how development in society impacts migration patterns, growth rates, economic and social development, agricultural production, women's rights, and the types of jobs that a society has. This is why the demographic transition model is one of the most important models in this entire class. Now, speaking of the role of women, we can see it's directly tied to population change. And it has its own topic in the CED for a reason. When women have greater access to education, participate more in the workforce and have better access to health care and family planning, the TFR for society starts to drop. Families have fewer children, but those children tend to be healthier and better educated. This also contributes to economic growth for the entire society. Okay. Now, when reviewing the demographic transition model, we talked about aging population. Remember, as birth rates drop and life expectancy increases, the proportion of elderly people in a society grows. This can create some real challenges for society. The workforce starts to shrink, which can slow economic growth. Health care costs rise as more people need long-term care and pension and social security systems start to become strained since fewer working age people are paying in to support the growing number of retirees. Now countries deal with this in different ways. Some encourage immigration to bring in younger workers. Others invest in automation and some adopt pro-natalist policies to try to boost birth rates. This connects directly back to those dependency ratios that we talked about earlier. Remember, a high elderly dependency ratio signals that a country is facing these exact pressures. Now, alongside the demographic transition model, make sure you also review the epidemiological transition model, which explains the causes of death as society develops. In stage one, deaths come mostly from infectious diseases and famine, things like chalera, the plague, and malnutrition. In stage two, improved food supply and sanitation began to reduce those threats. Pandemics now become less and less frequent and less deadly. By stage three, chronic and degenerative diseases start to take over as the leading cause of death. Things like heart disease, cancer, and diabetes now are more common. People are now living longer, but the diseases that come with aging start to become a bigger issue. In stage four, medical advances help society fight those degenerative diseases, further extending life expectancy. And in stage five, there is a reemergence of infectious diseases often because of antibiotic resistance, increased urbanization, poverty or globalization, which allow diseases to spread rapidly across borders. Okay. Now, when talking about population growth, we also have to talk about Malthus. Mus argued that population grows exponentially while food production only grows arithmetically. his prediction. Well, eventually the world population would outgrow its food supply leading to what we would call a Malthusian catastrophe. Famine, disease, and widespread death that would bring the population back down below the carrying capacity. Now, in reality, Mus has been proven wrong. The agricultural revolutions, advancements in technology, the green revolution, and countries moving through the demographic transition model all have allowed food production to keep pace with population growth. But neomalusians keep the argument alive. They argue it's not just about food. It's about the earth's finite supply of all natural resources. Water, energy, arable land. The concern is that even if we can produce enough food, the environmental costs of supporting a growing population may be unsustainable. Okay, so we have now been talking about population changes for a while and we really haven't talked about the government. I mean, did you actually think the government just sits back and watches population trends happen? Uh, there's not a chance. Governments actively shape population trends through different policies. Pronatalist policies are government efforts designed to encourage people to have more children. You'll see these in countries dealing with aging populations and a declining birth rate. While antiatalist policies are the opposite. They are designed to slow population growth by discouraging or limiting births. China's former one child policy is the most well-known example, though it was replaced in 2016, and the country now is trying to encourage families to have more children as it faces its own aging population challenges. Governments also shape demographics through immigration policies, controlling who can enter, how many people are admitted, and under what conditions. All right. Now, the last part of unit 2 is all about migration. Remember people migrate due to different push and pull factors. Push factors are things that motivate people to leave an area whereas pull factors are things that motivate people to migrate to an area. Now if a person is moving out of a place it is known as immigration and if a person is moving into a place it is known as immigration. Just think of immigration as E for exit and immigration as I for in. Generally people migrate due to different cultural, economic, political or environmental factors. People like Ravenstein observed that most migration happens for economic reasons and is often undertaken by young adults. We can see different migration trends and patterns illustrated with Ravenstein's laws of migration. When studying his laws, focus on understanding the different themes and patterns, not just memorizing each law word for word. Now, speaking of migration, don't forget about internal migration, international migration, dysphora, force migration, and voluntary migration. When studying the different types of migration, don't just memorize the definitions. For each type, make sure that you can explain what's pushing or pulling people, whether the migration is forced or voluntary, and how it impacts both the place the person is leaving and the place they're arriving to. Oh, and when you review migration, don't forget about intervening obstacles and intervening opportunities. Lastly, remember that migration impacts societies in a variety of ways. It can strengthen economies through labor, skills, and readmittance while also shaping politics through immigration policies and debates. Culturally, migration increases diversity, which can bring new ideas and goods and services to a country. but it can also spark tensions, anti-immigrant attitudes, and cultural resistance. All right. Now, for more help with any of the unit 2 concepts, make sure to check out my ultimate review packet. There you'll find clear topic by topic explanations, practice quizzes, and a bunch of resources to help you truly learn the information. And with the exam slayer, you get all of the practice tests and skills to make sure you can ace that test. Again, you can sign up for the free trial today and check both of them out. All right, geographer. We've made it to unit three, which we can see is all about culture. Remember, a culture is made up of a person's material and non-material culture. Material culture consists of physical objects, artifacts, or items that hold significance to an individual or society as a whole. While non-material culture refers to intangible elements of culture, such as an individual's ideas, beliefs, values, languages, or customs. Now, within culture, there are two broad categories that you want to be familiar with. Folk culture and modern culture. Folk culture is traditionally practiced by small homogeneous groups, often in more rural or isolated areas, emphasizing the collective experience, putting family, religion, and the community at the center of life. Folk culture tends to stay local, diffusing slowly through relocation diffusion when people physically move and carry their traditions with them. On the other hand, modern culture or pop culture is more diverse and typically originates in larger, more economically developed areas, spreading rapidly and widely, often through hierarchical and contagious diffusion, while also prioritizing individualism and personal achievement. Now, in viewing cultures, people tend to use either ethnosentrism or cultural relativism. Ethnosentrism is when a person views another culture through their own cultural lens. Here the individual will evaluate and judge the culture by using their own cultural standards. Cultural relativism on the other hand is when an individual views and evaluates another culture by the culture standard. Now culture doesn't just exist in people's heads. It shows up on the physical landscape as well. The cultural landscape refers to the visible human modifications of the natural environment which includes different religious practices, linguistic characteristics, infrastructure designs, agricultural practices, architectural styles, and land use patterns. One way to examine the cultural landscape is to observe evidence of sequent occupants, which is how cultures over time have impacted a geographic location. A single location might show evidence of indigenous land use followed by colonial architecture followed by modern development. Each layer tells a story about who occupied that place and when. Speaking of place, remember a place is made up of human and physical characteristics. Geographers frequently analyze both the physical and human characteristics of an area to gain insight into the distinct cultural patterns that exist in a place. Now remember, sometimes we can see places exhibit a sense of place which refers to the strong emotional connection or perception that people have of a specific geographic area. But we can also see some places lack a sense of place and experience placelessness which is when a place does not invoke any strong response from an individual due to the place lacking unique characteristics and identity. Also remember that a place's name is known as a toponym which can reveal the cultural patterns that exist in an area. For example, the name San Francisco tells you that at one point in time the Spanish most likely controlled the area revealing Spanish colonial influence on the city. Understanding the cultural makeup of a society allows us to gain insight into how a society operates, how women and men will be treated, how different religions and beliefs are practiced, how land is used, and what food is consumed. Speaking of cultural factors, don't forget to review centrial and centrifugal forces. These terms come up in later units, so make sure you don't mix them up. Centripal forces are those that bring people together and promote unity, such as shared history, common languages, and similar cultural values and beliefs. On the other hand, centrifugal forces are those that divide people and push them apart. These forces may include significant cultural differences, multiple languages spoken, ethnic and religious divisions or other cultural factors that put barriers up between people resulting in communities becoming fragmented. All right. So the next part of this unit is diffusion which remember is when a cultural element, item, group of people or phenomenon spreads from one place to another. We can see there is relocation diffusion which involves the physical movement of a culture or group of people from one place to another. And there is expansion diffusion which involves the spreading of a cultural trait or group of people from one place to another through persontoerson contact. Remember with relocation diffusion the hearth often shrinks while with expansion diffusion it grows. Also don't forget that there are a couple different types of expansion diffusion that you need to know. There is contagious diffusion, which is when the spread of a cultural trait happens quickly in all directions. There's little to no barriers that prevent the trait from spreading to as many people as possible. There's hierarchical diffusion, which happens through systems that are typically centered around some form of power structure. This often happens through a top-down process, unless the trait starts at the bottom of a power structure and moves upwards. In that case, the diffusion would be reverse hierarchical. Then lastly there is stimulus diffusion which is when an idea or cultural trait spreads from one place to another but the original idea or trait is adopted to better fit the local culture. Now throughout history we have seen diffusion happen for a variety of different reasons. Colonialism and imperialism led to the diffusion of English which eventually became a lingua frana. It also led to creoleization for instance when the Spanish settled in the Caribbean or the French in Louisiana during the colonial era. Speaking of languages, remember when looking at languages that we have a variety of different language families around the world and depending on where you are in the world, we will see different dialects and languages spoken, often split by an isogloss. Got to love dialects and accents. And luckily, I don't have one. So, that makes it easier for you to be able to watch these videos, even though you probably can't even tell where I'm from. I mean, could you imagine if I had one? That would be kind of annoying. Like if I was saying agriculture wrong all the time or if I was saying milk wrong. I mean yeah wouldn't want to deal with that. All right. Now today we can see that diffusion happens through urbanization, globalization, the internet, advancements in transportation and communication. We are more connected today than ever before which has led to time space convergence ultimately reducing the impact of distance decay. Two terms that you need to be familiar with for this class. All of this diffusion can lead to cultural convergence, which is when cultures become more similar as different cultures come together and start to blend into one shared culture. Speaking of convergence, remember not to mix it up with cultural divergence, which is essentially the opposite. This is when cultures become more distinct from each other over time. Also, don't forget when reviewing diffusion to study the effects of diffusion. Remember, when cultures and people from different backgrounds interact, it is common to see assimilation, acculturation, synratism, cultural resistance, or multiculturalism occur. All right. Now, up next is religion. And when you review the different religions, focus on understanding how the different faiths diffuse, where their hearts are, and how these faiths impact and shape the cultural landscape. Remember when studying that there are universalizing and ethnic religions. Universalizing religions are religions that seek to appeal to all people. These religions seek to expand and spread their teachings and beliefs to as many people as possible. Oftentimes, these religions will expand through expansion diffusion, but can also spread through relocation diffusion as well. Examples of universalizing religions would include Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Sikism. Ethnic religions on the other hand are primarily centered around specific cultural or ethnic groups and often stay in one location. These religions do not try to convert other people and often diffuse through relocation diffusion. These consist of Hinduism and Judaism. Again, when studying these faiths, remember to review how they diffused and how they impact the cultural landscape. Geographers, three units down. Keep up the great work. Keep following along with your review guide. Remember, if you do need any extra support or help with unit 3, check out my ultimate review packet and exam slayer where you can find practice quizzes, exclusive topic videos, practice exams, FRQs, and much, much more. Plus, you can check it out today for free with a free trial. Seriously, these two resources have everything you need to crush your AP exam and get that coveted five. Okay, so now it is time to move into unit four, which many say is one of the more challenging units, but it doesn't need to be. Just make sure you follow along in your review guide and you will be fine. To start, remember not to mix up the different political entities. Many of these terms are similar, but if you break them down, they're really not that bad. The big thing here to remember is the difference between a state and a nation. Remember, a state is a geographic area that has a permanent population, defined borders, a sovereign government, and is recognized by other states. And just in case you forgot, remember a sovereign government means the government has control over its domestic affairs and international affairs. Whereas a nation is a group of people with a shared culture, history, homelands, and a desire to govern themselves. Often times you will see a desire to govern connected to self-determination, which is a critical aspect of a nation's identity. This is referring to their right or desire to self-govern. Okay. So in breaking down the different political entities, all you need to do is just look at the terms. Nation, state, we have one nation. Where is it? It's in one state. Hence, nation, state, multinational state. Multi means multiple. Multiple what? Multiple nations. Where are they? Well, they're in one state, hence multinational state. Multi-state nation. Multi again means multiple. But notice this time it's not multiple nations, it's multiple states. Well, who is in multiple states? Well, it's the nation. So, we can see that we have a nation split between different states. Then there is stateless nation. Notice stateless ends with less, which we can connect to missing. What's missing? Well, it's the state. All right. Now, other political organizations you want to be familiar with is autonomous and semi-autonomous regions, which each refer to regions controlled by another state with the difference between them being about the degree of power the region has over itself. Okay. Okay. Now, the next part of this unit goes back in time where we can see colonialism and imperialism come back. Remember, colonialism is the practice of acquiring territories and settling there to exert political, economic, and social control over the area. While imperialism is the idea of growing a state or empire by exerting force over other nations to gain economic and political power without establishing settlements. Colonialism and imperialism also contribute to the establishment of political boundaries that continue to be relevant in the present day. For instance, we can see that the Berlin conference led to the creation of many of the borders in Africa. Now, underlying all of this is territoriality. This is the tendency to establish and defend control over a specific geographic area. States that express territoriality mainly do so through military presence, boundary enforcement, political systems, and regulation of activities within their boundaries. And territoriality doesn't stop with colonialism. Today, in fact, we can see many economically powerful countries and even multinational corporations practice a concept known as neoc colonialism, which is the indirect use of political, cultural, or economic power to influence or control another country. For example, today we can see China expanding its power and influence across Africa using neoc colonial tactics to gain power. One more concept here you want to be familiar with is choke points. These are strategic narrow passages that control access to key waterways or trade routes. Whoever controls a chokepoint holds significant political and economic power. Hey, real quick. I'm sorry to break the flow of the video, but when working on this video, I realize just how much content we've covered in a short amount of time. And I just want to let you know that you can do this. I know this is a lot. Feel free to pause the video if you need a break, but I really do believe you can do this. If you're getting overwhelmed, take a break and breathe. Don't get discouraged. And remember, you've got this. I know you do. All right. Now, when reviewing boundaries, make sure you spend some time reviewing the different types of boundaries. You need to be able to define each boundary and be able to give a real world example. One big mistake students make here is mixing up subsequent and consequent boundaries. So spend a little extra time reviewing those. Also, don't forget when reviewing boundaries to also look at the boundaries created by the law of the sea. Territorial waters extend 12 nautical miles from the shore. Here the state has full political and economic control. The contiguous zone is between 12 and 24 nautical miles. Here states can enforce laws on pollution, taxation, customs and immigration. Then there is the EEES which extends up to 200 nautical miles from shore. Within this zone, the state has sole rights to natural resources like oil, fish, and minerals. And beyond 200 nautical miles is international waters. No single state control. Disputes over maritime boundaries, especially in resourcerich areas like the South China Sea, can be taken to the International Court of Justice. All right, the last type of boundaries that you want to spend time with is a form of internal boundaries. Make sure that you are familiar with voting districts and how they change due to redistricting and gerrymandering. Remember, redistricting is the redrawing of voting district boundaries, usually after a census. While gerrymandering is when the process of redistricting is manipulated to favor one political party over another. All right, so the next part of uniform moves away from boundaries and into governance. Here you want to focus your review on unitary states which have power located at the national level and federal states which share power between regional governments and the national government. We can see that each system has trade-offs. Unitary states can respond quickly and consistently but may not address regional needs. While federal states can be more responsive to local issues, but power sharing can create conflict or inefficiencies. Now, when forces within a state push more regional control, then that can lead to devolution, which is the transfer of political power from a central government to regional or local governments. Now, don't mix this up with federalism. Devolution is specifically about the transfer of power, not a pre-existing power sharing structure. ethnic separatism, uneven economic development, terrorism, ethnic cleansing, irudidentism, physical geography that isolate regions, and ethnic nationalist movements can all drive devolution and influence the cohesion of a state. Also review a shatter belt, which is a region caught between competing powers that experiences instability, conflict, and fragmentation due to those external pressures. Speaking of devolution, make sure you are also familiar with these places and people here as they are specifically listed in the CED and may appear on the AP exam, especially when it comes to devolution and challenges to sovereignty. Okay, speaking of challenges to sovereignty, remember that state sovereignty for a variety of reasons such as advancements in technology and communication, global trade, the desire of a state's people, and even super national organizations, all impact and challenge a state's sovereignty. Just make sure when you're studying that you understand different ways in which a state's sovereignty can be challenged and why states participate in super national organizations. All right, that's it for unit 4. Now, if you need help reviewing any of the different concepts, you can check out my ultimate review packet for more targeted practice. Or you can head on over to the exams layer to take practice exams and see exactly what you understand and where you need more help. Just click the link down below. Geographers, we are on to unit 5. We only have three units left. Remember, if you're finding value in this video, consider subscribing and don't forget to smash that like button. Okay. So, agriculture is the deliberate modification of the earth's surface through cultivating plants and raising animals for food or economic gain. What gets farmed and where depends on different site and situation factors. Site factors are characteristics of the place itself. Climate, soil, natural resources, terrain. While situation factors describe a place's relationship to the surrounding areas like nearby rivers, markets, and trade networks. Now, agricultural practices fall into two broad categories, intensive and extensive. Intensive agricultural uses less land, but requires more labor and capital, and is typically located closer to population centers. Make sure you are familiar with plantation agriculture, which is typically largecale farms in tropical climates, often in periphery countries with low labor costs, producing cash crops for export. Market gardening sometimes references truck farming, which focuses on fruits and vegetables common in areas with longer growing seasons, like the southeastern part of the United States, and mixed crop and livestock farming found in more economically developed countries, where crops like corn and soybeans are grown to feed livestock. Now, extensive agriculture uses more land but less labor and capital and is generally found farther away from urban areas. Types include shifting cultivation commonly found in tropical regions like Latin America, subsaharan Africa, or Southeast Asia. This involves the land being cleared, then farmed until soil is depleted. After that, it's left to follow where farmers move to a new plot of land. Next is nomadic hering, where herders migrate with their livestock through areas where sedentary farming isn't feasible. And lastly, ranching, which involves raising livestock on large areas of inexpensive land, not ideal for crop farming. Now, intensive and extensive describe how farming is done. But we also categorize agriculture by why it's done. Commercial agriculture focuses on producing food for sale and profit, while subsistence agriculture focuses on producing food for the farmer's family or local community. You might see these paired with intensive or extensive on the exam like extensive subsistence agriculture or intensive commercial agriculture. So be ready for that as well. Also in studying, make sure you don't overlook aquaculture, which is the farming of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic organisms. It's a growing part of the global food production and shows up a couple times in the CED. Up next in unit 5, we have rule settlement patterns, which come in three forms. clustered buildings and farms grouped closely together, dispersed, spreading out with significant space between them, and linear, arranged in a line, often along a road or a river. And this brings us to survey methods, which for the AP exam, you need to know three meets and bounds are common in eastern United States, and they use natural landmarks to define irregular parcels of land. Meets are measurements of direction and distance between points and bounds are natural or human-made landmarks that define the edges of the property. Next is long lots which are common in French influenced areas like Louisiana and Quebec. These are narrow parcels of land with each lot having access to a river or road which helps facilitate the transportation of goods and services. Lastly, there is township and range which is common in western United States. This uses a grid system based on the baseline and principal median dividing land into uniform square parcels. Okay, now we're going to shift gears and talk about the different agricultural hearths and revolutions. When looking at the different agricultural hearths around the world, we can see places like the fertile crescent and indis river valley where different crops and animals were first domesticated. Now, over time, these crops and animals diffused outwards due to events such as the Columbian Exchange, which spread them across the globe. Remember, anytime people interact or migrate, it leads to the diffusion of different ideas, products, and goods. Speaking of historical events, let's go back to the first agricultural revolution, also known as the Neolithic Revolution, which is when humans shifted from hunting and gathering to sedentary farming. This is what allowed for stable populations to occur. food surpluses to develop and more complex societies to form. Eventually, the world saw the second agricultural revolution, which came alongside the industrial revolution. Inventions like the seed drill, the steel plow, and mechanical reaper dramatically increased agricultural output. The enclosure movement consolidated small farms into larger, more efficient operations and pushed displaced workers into cities, fueling urbanization, and industrial growth. Then came the green revolution, which transformed global food production through high yield seed varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and mechanized farming. It started with Dr. Norman Borlo's work with cross-breeding wheat varieties in Mexico. Crossbreeding combines different plant varieties to produce hybrid seeds with stronger traits like shorter growing seasons and climate resistance. Now, don't mix up hybrids with GMOs. Remember, hybrids come from traditional crossbreeding techniques while GMOs involve direct DNA modification and this came later after the green revolution. Now, the green revolution dramatically increased food production, but it also came with trade-offs. Make sure that you can discuss both positives such as increased yields, lower food prices, reduced famine, and also the negatives such as the loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, water pollution from chemicals, increased fossil fuel use, and displacement of smaller family farms who just couldn't afford the new technology. Okay, now we need to shift gears and talk about how agriculture is organized spatially, which means we need to look at the bid rent theory and vonin's model. The bid rent theory looks at the price of land in relation to a city or urban area. We can see that as we move closer to the city, land prices go up and as we move further away, they go down, which is why we see intensive agriculture near cities and extensive agriculture further out. All of this is because of scarcity. The bid rent theory complements vonin's model which remember uses different assumptions to allow the model to be applied to different situations and geographic areas. Closest to the market you find dairy and horiculture, perishable goods that need to get to the market fast. Next comes forestry, historically needed for fuel and construction. Then there is grains and field crops which need lots of land. So farmers benefit from cheaper prices that are farther out. And finally, ranching and livestock, located the farthest away from the market where land is the cheapest. Beyond the last ring is the wilderness. And this is land that's too far from the market to be profitable. Today, we can see that technology, refrigeration, improved transportation, globalization, and government policies have all changed where and how agriculture is practiced. But the core logic of Vonunin's model that land use is shaped by transportation costs and prices relative to the market still hold true. Now if we zoom out we can see that agriculture today operates as a global system. Over time economies of scale have driven the growth of large commercial operations. Remember economies of scale means that as production increases the average cost per unit actually decreases. So bigger farms can invest in better equipment, buy inputs in bulk and produce more efficiently. This has led to the rise of agro businesses, large-scale industrialized agricultural operations that integrate production, processing, and distribution through these complex commodity chains, which has also led to the rise of monoculture, which remember is growing one type of crop across a wide area, and monocropping, which is when the farmer grows the same type of crop year after year. Now while these practices are economically efficient, there is some new risks such as increased vulnerability to pests, disease and soil depletion. Now earlier I mentioned a commodity chain and you want to make sure that you are familiar with this concept. Remember this is a series of steps involved in gathering resources, producing a good and distributing it to consumers. And don't confuse a commodity chain with a supply chain. Remember a supply chain follows multiple inputs, commodities and components from sourcing through manufacturing to the distribution process. In agriculture, that chain stretches across the globe. Seeds from one country, farming in another, processing in a third, and consumption somewhere entirely else. This global trade generally benefits everyone. But it can also create commodity dependence which is when more than 60% of a country's exports are raw materials or agricultural products. Countries with commodity dependence are vulnerable to price swings in global markets. All right. Now we need to talk about the different environmental and social consequences of agriculture. On the environmental side, make sure you are familiar with deforestation, which is where the forests are cleared to make room for farming and desertification, which is where land becomes less productive over time and eventually turns into the desert. You also need to know about soil salinization, which happens when irrigation leaves salt behind in the soil. On top of that, remember that chemical runoff can pollute rivers and lakes, while intensive farming can lead to soil erosion and a loss of biodiversity. One last environmental factor to be aware of is land cover change, which is when natural land is converted to farmland, ultimately resulting in ecosystems being destroyed, carbon stored in the soil and trees being released into the atmosphere and the loss of critical habitats. Think about the Amazon rainforest being cleared for cattle ranching or soybean farms. On the societal side, agriculture affects the way people live. It shapes diets, supports local and national economies, and changes land use patterns as land is organized for farming, transportation, markets, and settlements. Also, make sure you have an understanding of how these different agricultural practices transform the landscape and impact local environments since they can also come up on the AP exam. Now, for challenges of contemporary agriculture, be familiar with food security and food insecurity, which is when people lack reliable access to affordable and nutritious food. And don't forget about food deserts. These are areas where residents have limited access to fresh, healthy food. As a result, people in these areas may rely more on convenience stores or fast food, which can affect diet and a person's health. Also be familiar with how government policies impact the location of agriculture and food processing such as agricultural subsidies which are payments given by governments to farmers to produce certain products ultimately influencing where farms operate and what products they produce. Regions with strong subsidies often see more production while areas that have less subsidies will struggle to compete. Couple other concepts that you want to be familiar with are some positive developments in agriculture such as organic farming, fair trade practices, urban farming, community supported agriculture, and value added crops. Lastly, remember in many developing countries, women make up a significant portion of the agricultural workforce, but they often operate in informal roles with limited access to land ownership, credit, technology, and education. We can see that as countries develop economically and progress through the demographic transition model, women gain more opportunities, which connects back to everything that we've discussed in unit 2 about women and the demographic change. Greater access to education and economic participation leads to lower TFRs, healthier families, and a broader economic growth. Okay, that's it for unit 5. I know we just covered a lot. Remember, if you need any help, check out my ultimate review packet to learn and review everything from this unit and the exam slayer to practice and refine your knowledge. You can try them both out today with a free trial. So, we've made it to the second to last unit of the entire course, which is all about cities and land use patterns. This unit starts out with site and situation factors. The big thing here with unit 6 is to remember that these factors influence not only where settlements locate, but how they grow and change over time. As urbanization increases, we'll start to see the rise of suburbanization, a movement of people from a city center to surrounding suburbs. And this has been accelerated with the creation of the interstate highway system, which made it easier to live outside the city and commute in, ultimately resulting in urban sprawl, which is the expansion of lowdensity development into the surrounding countryside. Make sure when you study that you also review edge cities, excerbs, and boombs. All of which you need to know for the AP exam. Plus, don't forget when people and businesses move away from the urban core, that's urban decentralization, and it can shift economic power and services away from city centers. Now, not all cities are created equal. At the top of the urban hierarchy are world cities, also called global cities, places like New York, London, and Tokyo that serve as command centers for the global economy. These cities drive international finance, trade, and culture and are connected to each other through global networks and linkages. Below world cities, the urban hierarchy ranks settlements by population size, economic function, and global connectivity. Remember, a mega city is any city with a population over 10 million, while a meta city is any city with a population with more than 20 million. Today, we can see that the world's largest mega cities are increasingly located in periphery and semi-p periphery countries driven both by higher birth rates and rural to urban migration. Now, speaking of urban hierarchy, make sure you are also familiar with the rank size rule, which states that the second largest city in a state has about half the population as the largest. The third has about a third. The fourth has about a quarter and so on. Countries that follow this pattern tend to have a more balanced distribution of city sizes. On the other hand, there is also a primate city, which is when one city dominates the country with a population at least twice the size of the next largest city. Generally, primate cities concentrate economic and political power in one place, which can lead to some vulnerability. Don't worry too much here about the math. Instead, just focus on understanding what these patterns mean for a state. Think back to how resources, opportunities, and power are distributed across a state. All right. Now, we also need to talk about the gravity model and crystal dollar central place theory. Both of which look at settlements, their location, and the impact on one another. The gravity model predicts that interactions between two places are based on their population sizes and the distance between them. Bigger populations and shorter distances mean more interaction. Remember this applies to migration, to trade, and to commuting patterns, which we can see also connects back to unit 2 with different push and pull factors. Now, Cristaller central place theory explains the spatial distribution of settlements based on two concepts. The first is range, which is the maximum distance people will travel for goods or services. And the second is threshold, which is the minimum population needed to support that good or service. Traditionally, the more unique, important or specialized the good or service is, the larger the range will be. Whereas goods and services that are more common, easy for others to replicate or more general have a smaller range. If we use this theory to look at settlements, we can see an urban hierarchy shown. Notice that there is only one city serving the surrounding settlement. This highlights the range of the urban area. Speaking of models and theories, we have to talk about everyone's favorite part of this unit, which I know you're just all so excited for, and it's of course the urban city models. I know, I know you've all been waiting for this part of the video. So, there are seven models that you need to be familiar with for the AP exam. And when reviewing the different models, you want to spend time reviewing how the model views the spatial layout of a city, how people and activities are separated, and how that model has changed with advancements in technology and globalization over time. Now, for time sake, I'm not going to do a deep dive into each model. But I will throw in an extra cheat sheet on the models inside the ultimate review packet. You can use this to help you break down the models and review for your upcoming exam. Also, when reviewing the models, make sure that you understand how the bid rent theory impacts the spatial layout of cities. The bid rent theory is one of the factors that shapes a city's density gradient, which remember is the gradual change in the density of an urban area from the center to the periphery. Land closer to the CBD is more expensive, so you see higher density developments like tall buildings, apartments, commercial offices. But as you move outward, land gets cheaper, density drops, and you start to see more single family homes and open spaces. When reviewing density, remember to focus on how the buildings not only change, but how the services, travel times, and environmental impacts change as well. All of which influence the built landscape of an area, which remember is the physical environment created by human beings, including buildings, streets, and other structures that shape the spaces humans inhabit. Speaking of the built landscape, we also have to talk about infrastructure. Societies that have accessible and quality infrastructure see increased economic development, more opportunities for citizens, increased global trade, and offer citizens a higher standard of living. Today we can see that technology and transportation have reshaped where businesses and people locate. Retail that used to be the anchor of the CBD has now moved outward, especially after the interstate highway system made suburban locations more accessible, shifting the spatial layout of settlements forever. Speaking of shifts, we can also see today that cities are trying to become more sustainable. Cities often use mixed land use, which is when residential, commercial, and sometimes industrial or recreational spaces are located close together in the same area instead of being separated into singleuse zones. Think apartments above a coffee shop with an office building next door. The goal here is to improve the walkability of a city. If everything a resident needs is nearby, they can walk or bike instead of driving. Some cities are also using transit oriented development, which is when residential and commercial areas are built around public transportation hubs, making public transportation more convenient than driving. Make sure you're also familiar with smart growth policies, which are all about directing development into areas that are already built up rather than letting urban sprawl occur. It uses tools like growth boundaries and zoning incentives to encourage compact development and preserve open space. New urbanism fits under that smart growth umbrella, but it's more about design. This is what neighborhoods actually look and feel like. Walkable streets, mixeduse buildings, town centers. The goal here is that communities feel connected rather than spread out. Then there are green belts, which is a ring of protected green space around a city that development can't push into. A great example of this would be London. And finally, slow growth cities. These intentionally limit how fast they can grow through caps on building permits or restrictions on new development. But just like green belts, when you limit housing supply, prices can go up. And that can lead to de facto segregation, the separation of people along racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic lines, but not because of any law, but because of who can and can't afford to live in an area. And that could also accelerate gentrification, which is when wealthier residents move into lower income neighborhoods, raising property values and eventually displacing long-term residents who can no longer afford to live in their original neighborhood. This not only pushes people out of their neighborhoods, but it can also lead to the loss of historical sites and a place's character. Now, make sure you are also familiar with these urban challenges here, which I realize there is a lot, but here's how I want you to approach studying them. Group them by theme. Some of these we can see deal with housing and segregation, like red lining and blockbusting. Others deal with poverty and inequality, like dismenity zones and informal settlements and squatter settlements. And then you have environmental consequences like food deserts, environmental injustice, environmental degradation, and loss of biodiversity. When you study each one, don't just memorize the definition. Make sure you can explain the cause, who it impacts the most, and how it connects to larger patterns of inequality and urban development. That cause and effect thinking is exactly what the FRQs are going to be looking for. Also remember that government fragmentation is another issue that cities face. Federal, state, regional, and local agencies may have conflicting goals, creating inefficiency and red tape for cities trying to address their problems. So, we just talked about the challenges that cities face. And now we need to look at how cities respond. Be familiar with these strategies here, all of which are direct responses to the challenges that we just looked at. For example, urban renewal and revitalization programs are attempts to address urban blight and zones of abandonment. Smart growth policies and urban growth boundaries are designed to combat suburban sprawl. Brownfield redevelopment takes contaminated or abandoned industrial sites and turns them into something usable, which connects both back to environmental justice and economic revitalization. When you study these, always connect the solution back to the problem it's trying to solve. And here's the part that students forget. Make sure that you can also think about unintended consequences. Revitalization sounds great on paper, but it can also lead to gentrification and displacement. All right. Now, the last thing to remember from this unit connects back to unit one, and it's qualitative and quantitative data. We can see that city planners and government officials use both to make decisions about infrastructure, zoning, services, and development. So, make sure that you know what each type of data is and how it connects to urban planning. All right, geographer. Congrats. You made it to the last unit. I seriously can't believe it. This video has been long and I realize that, but you have just reviewed an entire school year all in one video. Honestly, it it's pretty crazy. Now, before we get too excited though, we do need to review unit 7. And to start, we need to look at the industrial revolution. Remember, the industrial revolution pushed countries into stage two of the demographic transition model. It kicked off the second agricultural revolution and the enclosure movement. It increased urbanization, shifted birth rates, fueled colonialism and imperialism, and led to major economic transformations to occur. One shift you need to be familiar with is the decline of cottage industries, which are small-scale businesses run out of people's homes. This is where individuals would use traditional tools to produce goods by hand. Now, speaking of economic activity, we can also see jobs can fall into different sectors of the economy. The first is the primary sector which is all about extracting natural resources. Think farming, mining, fishing or logging just to name a few. The next is the secondary sector which takes those raw materials and turns them into finished products. Manufacturing and processing occur here. Remember products that gain value during this process are called value added products. After that there is the tertiary sector which is focused on providing services. Think retail, healthcare, education or banking just to name a few. We can actually break this sector down into two subsectors. The quattinary sector which involves information processing, research and technology and the quinary sector which involves highlevel decisionmaking. Think of CEOs or government leaders. As countries develop economically, we can see they shift more jobs into the tertiary sector, moving from an industrial economy to more of a postindustrial economy. When that happens, secondary sector jobs start to decline, which is known as deindustrialization. Don't forget, when studying, there's also a distinction between the formal economy, which are jobs that are taxed, regulated, and legally recognized, and the informal economy, which are unregulated, untaxed jobs. Now, when it comes to where production happens, we need to review Weber's lease cost theory, which states that the location for a factory often depends on three things: transportation costs, labor costs, and the benefits of elomeration, which is when businesses cluster together in the same area to share resources, labor, and infrastructure. To figure out where to produce, you need to know whether your product is a bulk reducing good, which is something that gets lighter as it's made. So you would locate then the production near the raw materials or a bulk gaining good which is something that gets heavier during production causing you to want to produce it then near the market where it will be sold. Today goods are not just produced domestically though we can see thanks to globalization that countries participate in trade around the world. This requires countries to utilize break of bulk points which are locations where goods are transferred from one mode of transportation to another. for example, ports, airports, or railards. All right, so we've been speaking now for a little bit about different jobs and economic activities, but we haven't talked about the different economic and social indicators used to compare how developed different countries are. Now, there are a lot of them, and to save time, I'm not going to do an in-depth review of each one, but make sure you're familiar with these indicators here. When reviewing them, don't worry about calculating any of these. just focus on understanding what they measure and what a high or low score means for a country's level of development. For instance, a higher HDI score means higher levels of human development. It factors in life expectancy, education, and income, but a higher GI score means greater inequality between men and women. It measures gaps in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor force participation. Speaking of men and women, don't forget to review the role of women in economic development. Remember, in many economically developing countries, women face significant barriers. Limited access to education, credit, land ownership, and formal employment. Women are often also concentrated in the informal economy, earning less and with fewer protections. Today we can see that microl loans and micro financing have become important tools for addressing these inequalities allowing women in developing countries to start or grow small businesses. These loans often can help lift families out of poverty and give women more economic independence. Okay. Now the next part of unit 7 is the theories of development. And there are three big theories that you want to be familiar with. versus Rustoau's stages of economic growth which argues that all countries develop through five stages. Stage one is traditional society dominated by subsistence farming with limited technology. Stage two is the preconditions for takeoff where new leadership infrastructure investment and cash crop production start to modernize the economy. Stage three is the takeoff stage when industrialization accelerates, urbanization increases, and the secondary sector rapidly expands. Stage four is the drive to maturity. Technology spreads out across different industries and workers start to become more specialized. And lastly, stage five is the age of mass consumption where the economy shifts to services and consumer goods and the standard of living often increases. Now, some have criticized this theory because it assumes every country follows the same path which ignores the impact of colonialism, exploitation, and unequal global trade relationships. Which leads us to the dependency theory, which argues that poor countries stay poor because they're stuck in unequal relationships with wealthier nations. Core countries and multinational corporations exploit the periphery countries for cheap labor and raw materials and the profits flow back to the core countries not the developing in the periphery. Then there's Wallerstein's world systems theory which views the entire global economy as one interconnected system divided into three tiers. Core countries hold the most power. They control global finance, produce high value goods and benefit the most from trade. Semi-periphery countries are industrializing and serve as a middle ground. They have a growing secondary sector, cheaper labor and less regulation, making them attractive for manufacturing. And lastly, periphery countries sit at the bottom. Here we can see raw materials being exported and the country is often dependent on a few core trading partners, often struggling to develop because so much of their wealth is extracted rather than being reinvested locally. So now we've started to talk about global trade. And when looking at global trade, you want to be familiar with comparative advantage, which is when a country can produce a certain good more efficiently than other goods. So they end up specializing in that and trade for the rest. Countries with a comparative advantage in the production of a good have a lower opportunity cost than other countries. Another concept you want to be familiar with is complimentary, which is when two places each have something the other needs, creating a natural trading relationship. Now, in recent decades, neoliberal policies have pushed trade even further. Neoliberalism, remember, is about reducing government barriers to trade, fewer regulations, lower tariffs, and opening markets up to everyone. The idea is that free trade benefits everyone by increasing competition, and lowering prices. These policies have led to the creation of major trade organizations and agreements like the EU, the WTO, Moser, and OPEC. Each of these organizations promote different economic cooperation, but they do it in different ways and at different scales. Make sure that you understand the purpose of each one of these and also how they encourage globalization. But also remember that not every country benefits equally from free trade, which connects back to our dependency theory and the core periphery model that we talked about earlier. Don't forget when studying that governments can still influence trade through tariffs, subsidies, and other policies at the local, national, and even international level. For example, you may see on the AP exam a question that asks you to explain how a tariff can protect a domestic industry, but also raise prices for consumers. So, you have to think about it from both sides. We can see that countries are not just connected though through trade. In fact, they are connected through finance as well. International lending agencies like the IMF and the World Bank loan money to developing countries, often with conditions that reshape their economies. When those economies struggle, it can trigger debt crisises that affect the entire global system. A great example of this would actually be the 2008 financial crisis. It started in the US housing market, but quickly spread to Europe, Asia, and beyond, dragging countries around the world down. Now, make sure you are familiar with also these concepts here. When studying, try to break them down. For instance, notice that some of these seek to explain where economic activity concentrates like special economic zones, free trade zones, and export processing zones. These are all designated areas where governments reduce taxes, tariffs, or regulations to attract foreign investment and manufacturing. Remember, growth poles are specific locations targeted for investment that are expected to stimulate economic development in the surrounding region. Then there is outsourcing and offshoring which remember explain how jobs move. Outsourcing is when a company contracts work out to another company while offshoring is when a company moves its own operations to another country usually for cheaper labor. And tying all of this together is the multiplier effect which is when one economic activity triggers additional growth in that area. For example, a new factory doesn't just create jobs for the factory. It creates demand for housing, restaurants, and services around it. Today, we can clearly see the effects too of economic restructuring around the world. Many secondary sector jobs have moved from industrialized countries to less economically developed countries leading to de-industrialization to occur in core regions. Generally, companies relocate to places with lower labor costs, fewer regulations, and cheaper resources. Some tertiary sector jobs like customer service have also moved to countries with lower wages and English-speaking workers. All of this connects back to the international division of labor where different parts of production are carried out in different places around the world. This also connects to fordism and postforis production. Fordism focuses on mass producing standardized goods with assembly lines and specialized workers. Postforwardism on the other hand is more flexible with workers trained in multiple roles so production can respond more easily to changes in demand. One concept here that you also want to be familiar with is just in time delivery which is when materials arrive exactly when they are needed. This system requires strong coordination between suppliers and manufacturers because any delay can stop production. Now, as companies expand and grow, they may also benefit from economies of scale, which remember means that the cost per unit decreases as production increases. All right. And finally for the unit, we also have to quickly review sustainable development, which remember is all about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability for future generations to meet their own needs as well. Here you want to be familiar with the United Nations sustainable development goals which honestly are essentially the different units of this course and also make sure to review ecoourism which remember is small-cale tourism designed to minimize environmental impact while also benefiting local communities. Okay, and just like that geographers that's it. That's a wrap. You just reviewed the entire AP human geography course in one video. All right, now here's what I want you to do next. First, take a break. You deserve a break. This is a long video. Then go and review your review guide to see what you understand and what you don't. After that, test yourself. This is one of the best ways to review and it truly shows you whether you understand the material and it's what'll separate you from getting a three to a four to a five. And that is exactly why I built the exam slayer. It's full of practice exams, unit tests, stimulus-based questions, all matched to the CED. Plus, after every test, you get a full breakdown showing exactly what topics you nailed and which ones could use a little bit more work. No guessing, just a straight, clear study plan. And of course, if you need to go back to review any of the specific concepts in more detail, while the ultimate review packet breaks everything down for you topic by topic, so you can zero in on exactly what you need. All right, having said that, I also want to say thank you. Thank you for the support this year and for subscribing, commenting, watching my videos, and recommending them to other students. I seriously cannot tell you how much I appreciate it. I never thought when I first started teaching that my videos would be viewed really outside of my classroom. And it's been such an honor to be part of your academic journey. I wish you nothing but the best for the rest of your studies and on the AP exam. All right. Now, to wrap it up, of course, as always, I'm Mr. Sin. Thank you so much for watching this video and I'll see you next time online.